托福閱讀中四種常見(jiàn)邏輯關(guān)系
為了幫助大家備考托福閱讀，提高成績(jī)，下面小編給大家?guī)?lái)托福閱讀中四種常見(jiàn)邏輯關(guān)系，希望大家喜歡!
托福閱讀中四種常見(jiàn)邏輯關(guān)系
第一種因果關(guān)系
因：because, because of, for, as, since, in that, on account of,with
果：so, so that, therefore, thereby, as a result, hence, thus,consequently, accordingly
因果關(guān)系除了傳統(tǒng)意義上的顯性因果表達(dá)詞外，隱性的因果同樣是不可忽略的一個(gè)重要部分。
隱性因果：
A 導(dǎo)致(因-果)：cause, reason, lead to, give rise to, result in, render, make, let, ask, support,push, stimulate, spark, spur, fuel, produce, be responsible for
如The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants sothat many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs.
在這段話中，有l(wèi)ead to, 表示了導(dǎo)致的意思，即結(jié)果; 而so that 更進(jìn)一步表示了后面的結(jié)果，所以可以充分判定這段話有因果關(guān)系的邏輯。
B 由…而來(lái)(果-因)：result from, derive from, originate from, initiate from, stem from, beresponsive to, be attributable to
如 “The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and tremendousnumbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing theprocess.”
在這段話中，根據(jù)result from可以推斷出有因果關(guān)系，那如果是解釋句子題時(shí)，選項(xiàng)中有因果關(guān)系就可以優(yōu)先考慮。
C 反映，體現(xiàn)(果-因): reflect, present, demonstrate, suggest, imply, show
This result demonstrates that…中華考試網(wǎng)
D 考慮到: given, considering, in view of, thanks to, according to
He succeeded thanks to (in view of) his effort.
E 依賴于: rely on, depend on, resort to,
He resorted to books when he had problems.
F 條件關(guān)系：when, once, as soon as, as long as
As soon as he got the money, he would leave the country at once.
G 分詞短語(yǔ)，不定式做狀語(yǔ)
Failing in the final exam, she cried.
第二種對(duì)比轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系
A 對(duì)比：while, whereas, on the other hand
在解釋句子題，插入句子題中，一旦出現(xiàn)對(duì)比關(guān)系，學(xué)生在掌握的基礎(chǔ)上就能非常快速的判定句間和句內(nèi)的關(guān)系。While, whereas 前后連接的是平行結(jié)構(gòu)，on the other hand前必定有on one hand, 可以用來(lái)把握句間關(guān)系。
B 轉(zhuǎn)折：but, although, despite, in spite of, nevertheless, however
第三種比較關(guān)系
A 同級(jí)比較 as…as
B 比較級(jí)：more…than, -er than, less…than
C 變化：change, alter, vary, modify, revise, increase, decrease, enhance, diminish, develop,progress, advance, improve, retreat, degenerate, continue, remain
D 差異：different, distinguish, separate, same, similar, comparable, compare…to
E 超越：surpass, exceed, excel, over
F 最高級(jí)
1)本身有最高級(jí)含義：maximum, minimum, peak, outstanding, top
2) 本身程度比較深：amazing, surprising, astonishing, prohibitively high
3) 否定+比較=最高級(jí)
No one is more outstanding than him.
從這句話中可以看出，否定加比較表示的是一種最高級(jí)關(guān)系。
第四種否定關(guān)系
顯性否定：no, not, never, nor, none neither
隱形否定：fail to, refuse, remove, miss, reject, absence of, lack of
否定前綴：a-, ab-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, non- , un-
否定前綴是詞匯題中經(jīng)常出的一個(gè)考點(diǎn)，把握否定前綴可以幫助考生把握一些生詞，依靠否定前綴對(duì)選項(xiàng)進(jìn)行一個(gè)排除。
雙重否定：not fail to, not illegal, not uncommon, not unavailable
雙重否定是英文中經(jīng)常運(yùn)用的表達(dá)方式，由于在平時(shí)中文對(duì)話中用的很少，隨意對(duì)雙重否定的把握就顯得特別的重要。
托福閱讀的切入點(diǎn)是什么
1、題型——注重解題方法
托福閱讀10種題型，除最后的小結(jié)題外大都屬于考查文章細(xì)節(jié)的題目。根據(jù)題干中的關(guān)鍵詞定位是至關(guān)重要的一步，然后就是理解。此時(shí)如果詞匯量太小怎么辦?事實(shí)上做閱讀我們永遠(yuǎn)要牢記的就是找句子主干，考查的信息基本都在主干中體現(xiàn)了，
比如：
The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops。
這個(gè)句子較長(zhǎng)，其中有which引導(dǎo)的定語(yǔ)從句，還有hunted… 這個(gè)狀語(yǔ)，而解題時(shí)我們只需要句子的主干The deer were gone。多數(shù)同學(xué)在做題時(shí)有個(gè)習(xí)慣就是看到一句話后就開(kāi)始逐詞閱讀，甚至試圖把它翻譯成中文，這可謂“兵家大忌”。
遇到一句話先抓主干，遇到整段記得掃描段落有無(wú)顯眼的連詞，舉例信號(hào)詞等，瀏覽每段的主題句。
再說(shuō)一下小結(jié)題，大多數(shù)考生的切膚之痛。一是做到最后一題時(shí)時(shí)間已所剩無(wú)幾，二是最后一題是對(duì)全文的主要內(nèi)容的總結(jié)，相對(duì)復(fù)雜。
在課堂中，我一再向?qū)W生強(qiáng)調(diào)把握全文結(jié)構(gòu)及大意的重要性，而如何去把握?
一是做題之前可大概瀏覽文章的標(biāo)題及每段首句。作為學(xué)術(shù)性的閱讀文章，首句基本都是主題句。尤其是總分結(jié)構(gòu)的文章，比如TPO6中的Infantile Amnesia, 雖然文章較難理解，但是文中明確提出了三種觀點(diǎn)first，second，third… 那么此類文章小結(jié)題的選項(xiàng)太顯而易見(jiàn)了。再者，文章的每段會(huì)對(duì)應(yīng)出2-3道題，那么題目中對(duì)應(yīng)的部分基本都是段落的核心所在。從這兩點(diǎn)就可以很快了解文章的主要內(nèi)容。所以在進(jìn)行TPO練習(xí)時(shí)，做題雖不可或缺，但還要注意多加練習(xí)快速閱讀文章的能力。
2、主題——增加背景知識(shí)
有部分學(xué)生反映做閱讀時(shí)很難投入進(jìn)去，有一點(diǎn)原因就是對(duì)于文章所述內(nèi)容太過(guò)陌生，如果你對(duì)其略知一二，相信定會(huì)有所不同。比如TPO中有篇文章講到化學(xué)元素周期表，對(duì)于高中生來(lái)說(shuō)再熟悉不過(guò)了，閱讀的時(shí)候半讀半猜，估計(jì)也可以理解的八九不離十了。
若考試準(zhǔn)備時(shí)間充足，可以多加涉獵，擴(kuò)充自己的知識(shí)背景;若時(shí)間緊張，則需搞定TPO套題。根據(jù)文章記憶單詞，并不是文章中出現(xiàn)的每一個(gè)“陌生的面孔”都要去熟悉，比如一些繁瑣的專有名詞跳過(guò)即可。主要記憶的當(dāng)然是一些動(dòng)詞、名詞及形容詞，尤其是出現(xiàn)在句子主干中，與解題有關(guān)的詞匯。
除了詞匯，應(yīng)學(xué)會(huì)分析題干及題目，比如題干中出現(xiàn)了effect，conclusion之類的詞，其實(shí)已經(jīng)界定了我們尋找的范圍——段落靠后的部分，還有就是觀點(diǎn)性和總結(jié)性的句子永遠(yuǎn)會(huì)是考察的重點(diǎn)所在。做題的時(shí)候?qū)W會(huì)分析原文和選項(xiàng)，進(jìn)行對(duì)比，比如句子簡(jiǎn)化題，做一題需要看五個(gè)長(zhǎng)句，似乎很花費(fèi)時(shí)間，但并不需要每個(gè)句子都要細(xì)看，而是先明確原句的邏輯及主干，抓住選項(xiàng)中的關(guān)鍵點(diǎn)與原句進(jìn)行比較。
例如：As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean.A. The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.B. The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.C. The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.D. As a result of crustal adjustments and faultin;g and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them。
原句是因果邏輯的句子，先找出其因： crustal adjustments and faulting，果：the Strait opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean。接著來(lái)看選項(xiàng)：A…. caused crustal adjustments and faulting 顯然是因果倒置了，毫不猶豫地滅掉;C. 因?yàn)榇诉x項(xiàng)中出現(xiàn)比較not as spectacular as, 非常惹眼的一個(gè)核心詞，而原文中是修飾動(dòng)詞的副詞spectacularly，并未進(jìn)行比較，二話不說(shuō)也排除掉;D. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar,… 這原因里怎么多出來(lái)一項(xiàng)啊，擄袖子攆人吧!
托福閱讀如何防范陷阱
托福閱讀中的細(xì)節(jié)題其實(shí)不難，但前提是定位的點(diǎn)要對(duì)，比如下面這個(gè)例題：
Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country, it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River.
According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound?
A. It is native to lowlands and marshes.
B. It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer.
C. It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie.
D. It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied.
這是一個(gè)典型的細(xì)節(jié)題，在該題題干中，有的考生會(huì)選擇Puget Sound作為關(guān)鍵詞回原文定位，因?yàn)樗菍Ｓ忻~，在文中會(huì)比較顯眼。但是如果一旦選擇了這個(gè)地名，勢(shì)必會(huì)定位在該段的第一句話，托福細(xì)節(jié)題往往是定位在哪句就在哪句找答案，這樣的話考生是選不出正確答案的，因?yàn)槎ㄎ徊痪_。其實(shí)正確的關(guān)鍵詞應(yīng)該是white-tailed deer，這個(gè)用連字符連接的詞在文章中也是比較醒目的，按該詞定位應(yīng)是該段最后一句話。所以根據(jù)它的意思應(yīng)該選D項(xiàng)。其中A項(xiàng)與原句意思不符，B和C都與定位句信息無(wú)關(guān)。我們?cè)賮?lái)看另外一個(gè)否定事實(shí)細(xì)節(jié)題的例子：
Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their structure depends on the particular history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?
A. They occur at the end of a succession.
B. They last longer than any other type of community.
C. The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change
D. They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.
這個(gè)題大家都會(huì)選擇用climax communities去定位，但在定位過(guò)程中會(huì)出現(xiàn)很多問(wèn)題。首先考生要學(xué)會(huì)跳躍式定位，即根據(jù)文章中特殊的標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)以及最醒目的詞來(lái)搜索我們真正需要的關(guān)鍵詞。文中的particular是加了陰影的，succession是在引號(hào)里面的，都非常醒目，通過(guò)看這兩個(gè)詞我們會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)它們附近沒(méi)有我們需要的東西;再比較突出的就是數(shù)字及破折號(hào)，在500的上方有a climax community，但它是單數(shù)，與題干關(guān)鍵詞不完全匹配，細(xì)節(jié)題講究的是精確定位，所以我們應(yīng)該選擇500斜下方的Climax communities，即該段的最后一句話。
否定事實(shí)細(xì)節(jié)題的出題思路有兩種：一是無(wú)中生有，即根據(jù)定位點(diǎn)的內(nèi)容，四個(gè)選項(xiàng)只有一個(gè)沒(méi)有提到，這種思路多適用于選項(xiàng)比較簡(jiǎn)短的題目;二是張冠李戴，即根據(jù)定位點(diǎn)的內(nèi)容表述，只有一個(gè)選項(xiàng)與之矛盾，這種思路多適應(yīng)于選項(xiàng)比較長(zhǎng)的題目。就這個(gè)例題而言，根據(jù)定位的最后一句話，從表述上來(lái)說(shuō)跟它相關(guān)的只有C和D兩個(gè)選項(xiàng)，D項(xiàng)的意思與原句相符，而C項(xiàng)與原句矛盾，所以正確答案是C。綜上所述，做新托福閱讀的細(xì)節(jié)題，最重要的一點(diǎn)就是要盡量地去精確定位。
托福閱讀怎么避免理解誤區(qū)
The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process。
很多人在看到這句話的時(shí)候，經(jīng)常翻譯為"沙漠化是源于"或者翻譯為"沙漠化導(dǎo)致""很多的土地與很多的人去影響的原因。 "這里面有兩個(gè)點(diǎn)特別容易犯錯(cuò)誤，一是result from是源于的意思，而不是單純的導(dǎo)致的意思。二是affected在這里其實(shí)是后置定語(yǔ)，因此這里的意思是"被影響"，這里很多人又疑惑了，因?yàn)槲覀?以前看到的東西都是，人的因素導(dǎo)致沙漠化啊，怎么又會(huì)是被影響呢?這就是你的問(wèn)題了，你被自己以前獲得的信息給影響了，你只要知道文章的作者是這么認(rèn)為的 就可以了，何必把自己腦中的信息強(qiáng)加在本文作者身上呢?
這句話其實(shí)是一個(gè)很淺顯的例子，舉這個(gè)例子，其實(shí)就是想告訴很多考生很多時(shí)候，只是認(rèn)為自己已經(jīng)把文章讀懂了，但是實(shí)際上對(duì)于文章的理解上有無(wú)數(shù)的錯(cuò)誤，這其實(shí)就是語(yǔ)言的細(xì)節(jié)!這些細(xì)節(jié)點(diǎn)要想解決靠的是什么?靠的是單詞的積累，靠的是語(yǔ)法的一步一步的打磨。
新托福閱讀中如果你經(jīng)常有看得懂文章，但不對(duì)題的感嘆出現(xiàn)，考生們最好還是從自身下手，去檢查自己的單詞，以及語(yǔ)法，如果覺(jué)得不知道從哪里下手，到底該怎么提升，建議你做做老托福的語(yǔ)法，而且要多分析錯(cuò)題;并且多找一些文章多翻譯一下，然后按照里面給出的譯文去檢查一下自己到底哪里理解錯(cuò)了，希望以上這些方法可以幫到大家。
托福閱讀中四種常見(jiàn)邏輯關(guān)系相關(guān)文章：
★ 托福閱讀題型講解
托福閱讀中四種常見(jiàn)邏輯關(guān)系
